考研复习笔记 陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)
??6, 800 known languages are spoken in 200 countries of the world.
世界上共有6800多种说话，被200多个国度的人们所利用。There are more than 100 language families in the world.世界上共有一百多个语系。
II.The functions of language（说话的功效）
1.Phatic:Hi.
酬酢功效。例：你好。
2.Directive:Shut up!
指令功效。例：闭嘴！
3.Informative: The sun rises in the east.
信息功效。例：太阳从东边升起。
4.Interrogative: Do you know his hobby?
扣问功效。例：你晓得他的快乐喜爱吗？
5.Expressive/Emotive:I love her.
表达功效。例：我爱她。
6.Evocative:What do you think of Tom?
豪情功效。例：你感觉汤姆怎样样？
7.Performative:I hereby declare the sports meeting open.
施为功效。例：我特此颁布发表活动会起头。
8.Recreational: Funny jokes make people laugh.文娱功效。例：有趣的笑话令人失笑。
9.Metalinguistic:Use language to explain language itself.
元说话功效。例：用说话评论辩论说话自己。
III.The defining features of language（说话的区分性特性）
1.Arbitrariness（肆意性）
A word, as a symbolic unit, has both form and meaning. At usual, however, the relation between theform and the meaning is arbitrary. In other words, there is no inherent connection between the formand the meaning.
作为意味性符号，单词具有情势和意义。但是，凡是情势和意义之间的瓜葛是肆意的，换言之，两者之间没有内涵接洽。
2.Duality（二重性）
Duality refers to the fact that language has two levels of structure: at the lower level, languageincludes a series of meaningless elements; at the higher level, these meaningless elements for妹妹eaningful units such as words and so on.
二重性是指说话具有两层布局的属性，在底层布局，说话含有一系列偶然义的音素；在上层布局，这些偶然义的符号构成成心义的单元，如单词等。
3.Creativity（缔造性）
“Creativity”, sometimes also called “productivity”, refers to the ability to produce and understand manynew symbols, many of which have never been heard before.
缔造性指说话的能产性，它可以或许令人造出和理解很多新符号，此中不少是之前从未听过的。
4.Displacement（移位性）
Displacement refers to a characteristic of language that allows users to talk about things and eventsother than those occurring in the here and now.
移位性是指人类说话可让利用者在寒暄时用说话符号代表时候上和空间上其实不可及的物体、事务和概念，超出曩昔、如今和未来。
5.Cultural transmission（文化通报性）
Language is not genetically inherited. Instead, it is passed down from generation to generation bylearning.
说话不是靠遗传，而是经由过程进修代代相传的。
Natural languages have a lot in co妹妹on. The co妹妹on properties shared by all natural languages arecalled “universals”.Here are some of them:
天然说话有不少配合的地方。所有天然说话共有的配合属性被称为“广泛性”。如下是此中一些：
(1) Where there are humans, there is language.
(2) The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words for new concepts.
(3) All languages can change over time.
(4)All gra妹妹ars contain similar rules for the formation of words and sentences
(5) All languages have similar gra妹妹atical categories (e.g., nouns, verbs).
（1）哪里有人类，哪里就有说话。
（2）任何说话的辞汇量均可以扩充，包含新观点的新辞汇。
（3）所有的说话都是跟着时候而变革的。
（4）所有的语法都包括雷同的单词和句子的构陈规则。
（5）所有说话都有类似的语法范围（如名词、动词）
IV.The origin of language（说话的发源）
1.The bow-wow theory（“汪汪”理论）
Primitive language was the imitation of natural sounds such as the sound of animals, the barking ofdogs and so on.
说话是仿照天然的声音，比方动物的啼声，狗啼声等。
2.The pooh-pooh theory（“噗噗”理论）
Language comes from people’s instinctive cries.
说话来历于人本能的感情声音。
3.The ding-dong theory（“叮咚”理论）
Language originated out of a natural correspondence between objects of sense perception and thevocal noises which were part of early humans’ reaction to them.
说话来历于事物感知与声音之间天然生成的接洽，这是人们自然的发声反响。
4.The yo-he-ho theory（“哟-嘿-吼”理论）
Speech started with the rhythmic chants and grunts people used to coordinate their physical actionswhen they worked together.
说话基于人们在做重体力劳动时所发生的咕噜声和呻吟声。
5.The ta-ta theory（仿照理论）
Human language originated from using tongue movements to mimic manual gestures.人类说话源于经由过程利用舌头和嘴巴来仿照手势。
6.The ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay theory（“塔拉啦布德瑞”理论）
Language might originate from ritual dance and incantation.在舞会及咒语中也会发生说话。
V.The acquisition of language（说话的习得）
1.Features of language acquisition（说话习得的特性）
（1）universally successful广泛乐成
（2） no explicit instruction无明白引导
（3）rapid敏捷的
（4）conditional有前提的
2.Stages of language acquisition（说话习得的阶段）
(1) babbling period: from birth to around 6 months, some sounds can be produced;
牙牙学语阶段：从诞生到6个月，能发一些音；
(2) syllabic speech period: at about 8 months, syllables like [mama] can be produced instead ofbabbled sounds;
音节发音阶段：8个月摆布，可以或许发出“mama”取代暗昧不清的音；
(3)single-word stage: at about 1 year old, first words, no gra妹妹ar; carry out simple co妹妹ands;
单音节阶段：1岁摆布，单音节无语法，能履行简略的号令；
(4) onset of speech: 18 months,learn 3-50 words;
说话开端习得：18个月，学会3-50个单词；
(5) two-word utterances stage: at 2 years old; startcreation of two-word phrases (begin to learngra妹妹ar);
双音节阶段：2岁，能本身造词（起头习得语法）；
(6) full-understanding stage:2.5 years old;
彻底理解阶段：2岁半；
(7) near adult-speech: at 3 years old; overgeneralization of inflections;
靠近成年阶段：3岁，屈折变革的高度归纳综合；
(8) adult speech:4 years old.
成年阶段：4岁。
3.Theory of children language acquisition（儿童说话习得理论）
（1）Definition（界说）
Some scholars believe that the reason children can learn language is because adults speak to them in aspecial “simplified” language called motherese, care-takerese, or child directed speech(CDS)(moreinformally,baby talk).
一些学者认为，儿童之以是可以或许进修说话，是由于成年人用一种特别的“简化”说话与他们扳谈，这类说话有时被称为“母亲语”“关照语”或“儿童直接说话”（CDS）（更普通的说法是“婴儿语”）。
One theory of child language acquisition holds that children learn to produce “correct” sentencesbecause they get positive reinforcement when they say the right thing, and negative reinforcementwhen they say the wrong thing.
儿童说话习得理论认为，儿童进修“准确”的句子是由于当他们说准确的事变时，他们会获得踊跃的强化，而当他们说毛病的事变时，他们会获得消极的强化。
VI.Linguistics：The science of language（说话学：说话的科学）
1.Definition（界说）
The scientific study of language makes is called linguistics.
对说话的科学钻研即为说话学。
2.Branch（分支）
(1)Core branches,within the scope of theoretical linguistics
焦点分支，理论说话学范畴内
Such as phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,and pragmatics如语音学、
音位学、形态学、句法、语义学和语用学
(2) Peripheral branches, under the umbrella of applied linguistics
边沿分支，利用说话学范畴下
Such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, languagepedagogy, first/second language acquisition, clinic linguistics,computational linguistics,etc.
Such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, languagepedagogy, first/second language acquisition,clinic linguistics, computational linguistics, etc.
如社会说话学、生理说话学、神经说话学、人类学说话学、说话讲授法、第一／第二说话习得、临床说话学、计较说话学等。
3.Character（特色）
(1) synchronic approach over diachronic approach
比拟用时法，更方向于共时法。
(2) descriptivism over prescriptivism
比拟于规范主义，更偏向于描述主义。
比拟于书面说话，更偏向于口头说话。
(3) spoken language over written language
1.2课后习题详解
第2章 英语语音
2.1 温习条记
2.2课后习题详解
第3章 英语说话单元
3.1温习条记
3.2课后习题详解
第4章 英语说话布局（1）
4.1 温习条记
4.2 课后习题详解
第5章 英语说话布局（II）
5.1温习条记
5.2课后习题详解
第6章 英语说话意义（1）
6.1温习条记
6.2课后习题详解
第7章 英语说话意义（II）
7.1 温习条记
7.2课后习题详解
第8章 英语说话的利用（1）
8.1温习笔
8.2课后习题详解
第9章 英语说话的利用（II）
9.1 温习条记
9.2课后习题详解
第10章 英语说话的利用（III）
10.1 温习条记
10.2课后习题详解
第11章 英语说话的利用（IV）
11.1 温习条记
11.2课后习题详解
第12章 英语的认知钻研
12.1温习条记
12.2课后习题详解
第13章 英语说话变体（1）
13.1温习条记
13.2课后习题详解
第14章 英语说话变体（II）
14.1 温习条记
14.2课后习题详解
第15章 英语习得
15.1 温习条记
15.2课后习题详解
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